Nurhan Gürel
CemenTürk Editor-in-Chief
Introduction
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) production is a major source of CO₂ emissions, releasing on the order of 800 kg of CO₂ per ton of cement produced. In the push for more sustainable construction materials, magnesium-based binders have garnered attention as promising low-carbon alternatives to OPC. These binders utilize magnesium compounds (typically magnesium oxide, MgO) to form cementitious materials and include formulations such as magnesium phosphate cements (MPCs), magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC, also known as Sorel cement), magnesium oxysulfate cement (MOS), and novel carbonated MgO systems. Magnesium-based binders offer unique benefits: many can harden rapidly with high early strength, have lower processing temperatures (hence lower embodied CO₂), and some even absorb CO₂ during curing, achieving a carbon-neutral or carbon-negative footprint. At the same time, they enable the incorporation of industrial wastes (as magnesium sources or fillers), aligning with circular economy principles. This article provides a comprehensive overview of magnesium-based binders their types, chemistry, reinforcement techniques, performance relative to OPC, realworld applications, and the benefits and challenges on the path toward greener cementitious materials.
Types of Magnesium-Based Binders-Their Production and Performances
Magnesium-based binders are increasingly studied as sustainable alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC), largely due to their lower carbon footprint and unique performance characteristics. These cements can be broadly grouped into four categories based on their chemical reaction systems: magnesium phosphate cements (MPCs), magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC), magnesium oxysulfate cement (MOS), and hydrated magnesium carbonate binders, often referred to as carbonation-based MgO cements. Each type is distinguished by its reaction pathway, strength development, durability, and environmental performance.
Magnesium phosphate cements (MPCs) are formed through an acid-base reaction between a basic component typically deadburned magnesium oxide and a soluble phosphate such as monoammonium phosphate or diammonium phosphate. This reaction yields magnesium phosphate hydrates like struvite (MgNH4PO4·6H2O), which provide extremely rapid hardening and early strength. In fact, MPCs can reach high compressive strength within hours of mixing, making them highly suitable for rapid repair applications. They also exhibit strong adhesion to a variety of substrates and can cure at ambient temperatures, which enhances their practicality in field applications.
From a sustainability standpoint, there has been a growing focus on sourcing MgO from industrial by-products rather than virgin materials. One promising approach involves using tundish deskulling waste, a refractory by-product from the steel industry, as a substitute for MgO in the formulation. This variant, often labeled as MPC-TUN, has been shown to perform comparably to conventional MPCs. Moreover, ecotoxicological assessments have found these formulations to be environmentally safe, even in marine settings. Notably, MPCs derived from waste-based MgO have sometimes exhibited better ecological performance than their pure-MgO counterparts. The main drawback of MPC systems lies in their dependence on specialty chemicals particularly phosphate salts which may influence cost and availability. Nonetheless, their rapid setting and low-temperature curing make them ideal for accelerated construction or emergency repair scenarios. A typical flowsheet of magnesium phosphate cement production is given below.
In contrast, magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC), also known as Sorel’s cement, is produced by reacting MgO with a concentrated aqueous solution of magnesium chloride, typically MgCl2·6H2O. This reaction forms crystalline hydrates such as 3Mg(OH)2·MgCl2·8H2O and 5Mg(OH)2·MgCl2·8H2O, commonly referred to as Phase 3 and Phase 5. MOC is renowned for its exceptionally high early strength, often reaching compressive strengths of 40 to 60 MPa within a single day. Additionally, it exhibits excellent fire resistance and low thermal conductivity, which have made it a popular choice historically in applications such as flooring and fire-resistant construction boards.
Despite its mechanical advantages, MOC has a critical limitation: poor water resistance. When exposed to moisture over time, the chloride-bearing hydrates decompose, leading to strength loss as brucite (Mg(OH)2) forms and magnesium chloride leaches out. In severe cases, prolonged water exposure can reduce MOC’s strength by as much as 90%, effectively disintegrating the material unless preventive measures are taken. To overcome this, recent research has focused on enhancing MOC’s durability through additives. Silica-rich materials such as metasteatite (a calcined magnesium silicate) have been shown to induce the formation of magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H) gels within the matrix. These gels densify the microstructure and reduce water ingress. Incorporating about 10% metasteatite, for instance, has led to significant improvements in water resistance and mechanical stability. Other effective additives include phosphates, phosphoric acid, nano-silica, and various organic compounds, all of which help modify the pore structure and hydrate composition, thus mitigating the breakdown under wet conditions. As a result of these advances, there is renewed interest in using MOC for specialized indoor applications where exposure to moisture is minimal but fire resistance and strength are paramount. Magnesium oxychloride cement production flowsheet is given below.
Magnesium oxysulfate cement (MOS) is structurally analogous to MOC but substitutes magnesium sulfate for magnesium chloride. The primary hydration products in MOS systems are magnesium oxysulfate hydrates, particularly those denoted by the 5-1-7 phase (5Mg(OH)2·MgSO4·7H2O). One of the key advantages of MOS is its relatively low alkalinity, with a typical pH range around 9 to 10. This makes MOS less corrosive to embedded metals and more compatible with reinforcements like glass or natural fibers. Additionally, since MOS formulations are free from chlorides, they exhibit better dimensional stability under humid conditions compared to MOC.
However, MOS cements tend to develop strength more slowly and may not achieve the same mechanical performance as MOC without careful formulation. Achieving optimal performance often involves fine-tuning the MgO-to-MgSO4 ratio and incorporating performance modifiers. To enhance sustainability, researchers have explored the inclusion of industrial by-products such as kraft pulp mill wastes including lime sludge and slaker grits as partial replacements in MOS formulations. Studies have shown that substituting up to 25% of the binder with these wastes can maintain satisfactory mechanical performance in products like fiber-cement boards. For example, a modulus of rupture around 11 MPa was reported even with 25% grit substitution. However, higher levels of waste addition, particularly those high in sulfates, can lead to undesirable by-products such as sodium sulfate crystals, which may weaken the interfacial zones and reduce strength.
To address these challenges, accelerated carbonation curing has been introduced. By exposing MOS composites to CO₂-rich environments at early ages, the formation of stable magnesium carbonates is promoted. These carbonation products fill pores, lower permeability, and improve water resistance. This dual strategy waste incorporation combined with targeted CO₂ curing has led to more durable MOS boards with improved dimensional stability. Thus, MOS cements are emerging as a viable middleground solution: they offer better durability than MOC in humid conditions and lower alkalinity than OPC, while still being amenable to ecological improvements through carbonation and material recycling. A typical flowsheet of magnesium oxysulfate cement production is presented below.
The final category of magnesium-based binders is the carbonation-based MgO cement family, which relies on the reaction between reactive magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide to form a solid matrix. In these systems, lightly calcined MgO (often called reactive magnesia) is mixed with water and sometimes with pre-formed hydrated magnesium carbonates. As the mixture is exposed to atmospheric or chamber-supplied CO₂, it undergoes carbonation, forming solid phases such as nesquehonite (MgCO3·3H2O) and hydromagnesite.
These binders are particularly appealing because they incorporate carbon dioxide into the hardened material, making it possible to achieve a net-zero or even carbon-negative footprint. For instance, one method blends MgO with nesquehonite crystals to promote both immediate hydration and carbonation. Replacing approximately 50% of the MgO with nesquehonite has been shown to improve both 28-day compressive strength (up to 43–44 MPa) and CO₂ uptake. The improved performance is attributed to the formation of hydrous carbonate-containing brucite phases, which act as a binding matrix while gradually filling voids through ongoing carbonation. The result is a material that gains strength over time rather than degrading, as is often the case with OPC under carbonation.
Effective carbonation usually requires exposure to elevated CO₂ levels, such as those found in flue gas streams or controlled curing chambers. This ensures deeper and faster diffusion of CO₂, particularly in thicker sections. Additional reactive materials, like steel slag or magnesium-rich silicates, can be incorporated to further promote CO₂ uptake and enhance mechanical properties. A notable commercial example is the Partanna binder, which uses magnesium-rich brine from desalination processes and other proprietary additives. During curing, it reportedly absorbs around 100 kg of CO₂ per ton of binder, meaning it stores more carbon than is emitted during its production. This positions it as a leading example of truly carbon-negative construction materials.
Although challenges remain such as achieving reliable setting and ensuring adequate curing of large structural elements the promise of magnesium carbonates as CO₂-storing binders is transformative. Unlike traditional cement, which emits carbon, these binders can act as long-term carbon sinks in the built environment. Carbonation based MgO cement production flowsheet is given below.
Comparison of Magnesium Based Binders with OPC
When evaluating magnesium-based binders against conventional Portland cement (OPC), several performance dimensions come into focus: mechanical strength, durability, environmental footprint, and curing behavior. Although magnesium binders vary in formulation and performance depending on their chemistry, a number of general trends can be identified.
Magnesium-based binders can match or even exceed the compressive strength of OPC in certain formulations. For instance, magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC) can reach compressive strengths above 50 MPa in 28 days, and with optimized mixes, values exceeding 200 MPa have been reported well above the typical 20–40 MPa for standard OPC concretes. MOC also demonstrates a high modulus of elasticity and excellent flexural strength, contributing to a stiff and rigid material ideal for highperformance applications.
Magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) is notable for its rapid hardening: it can achieve high MPa within hours after placement, making it highly attractive for emergency repair or accelerated construction. In contrast, OPC typically requires days to reach similar strength levels, though it benefits from ongoing strength development over months. With the right additives and curing conditions, OPC can be engineered to exceed 150 MPa in ultrahigh- performance applications.
An additional advantage of magnesium binders is their lower density. For example, MOC has a density around 70% that of OPC, reducing dead loads in structures. However, magnesium based systems generally do not support conventional steel reinforcement. Their lower pore solution pH and, in the case of MOC, the presence of chloride ions, pose significant corrosion risks to steel. Instead, non-metallic reinforcements such as glass, basalt, or polymer fibers are typically used, which can enhance toughness without corrosion concerns. This is a key distinction from OPC, where alkaline conditions naturally protect embedded steel.
Table 1. Compressive Strength and Setting Time Comparison
The durability of magnesium binders presents both strengths and limitations. On the positive side, MOC and MOS are inherently non-combustible, making them ideal for fire-resistant applications. They have been used effectively in fireproof panels and flooring, often paired with wood where they suppress smoke and flame propagation. MOC, in particular, has outstanding abrasion resistance and outperforms OPC in applications subject to mechanical wear.
Furthermore, magnesium binders have a significantly lower pore solution pH (around 9–10) than OPC (typically >12). This allows for safe use with glass fibers and mitigates the risk of alkali-silica reaction, a common degradation mechanism in OPC when using reactive aggregates.
Magnesia-phosphate systems offer superior acid and salt resistance and are not prone to sulfate attack, as they lack calcium aluminates that form expansive ettringite. They also excel at immobilizing heavy metals, offering environmental benefits for stabilization and waste encapsulation applications.
However, water resistance has been a weakness especially for MOC and MOS, which are not hydraulic. They harden through air-curing crystallization and can degrade in wet environments due to leaching of chloride or sulfate ions and decomposition of binding phases. For example, unmodified MOC can lose up to 70% of its strength after prolonged water exposure.
Recent advances have substantially improved water durability. Studies show that incorporating supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, silica fume, or ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) into MOC formulations enhances water resistance. One such blend (15% fly ash + 15% silica fume) maintained nearly 100% of its strength after 28 days of immersion. These modifications promote the formation of stable binding phases and reduce porosity, allowing magnesia cements to perform reliably even in moist environments. Despite this progress, the incompatibility of magnesium binders with steel reinforcement remains a constraint, limiting their use in heavily reinforced structural elements unless alternative non-corrosive reinforcements are employed.
Magnesium-based binders offer significant potential to reduce the carbon footprint of cementitious materials, particularly when compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC). However, the environmental performance of these binders is highly dependent on the raw materials used and the processing methods employed.
Conventional OPC production involves calcining limestone (CaCO3) at temperatures around 1450 °C, a process that emits approximately 0.8–0.9 ton of CO₂ per ton of clinker. These emissions arise from both fuel combustion and the decarbonation of limestone. In contrast, magnesium binders are typically based on magnesium oxide (MgO), which can be produced by calcining magnesite (MgCO3) at significantly lower temperatures usually between 700 and 1000 °C. This lower temperature process consumes less energy and, therefore, potentially results in lower CO₂ emissions.
If natural magnesite is used as the MgO source, around 1.1 ton of CO₂ are still released per ton of MgO due to decarbonation. However, there are critical differences that influence the overall carbon balance. First, MgO production requires less thermal input and can be powered using electric kilns or renewable sources more feasibly than OPC clinkerization. Second, and most importantly, many magnesium binders particularly carbonation-based systems can reabsorb the CO₂ released during calcination. When reactive MgO is exposed to CO₂ during curing, it forms stable magnesium carbonates like nesquehonite (MgCO3·3H2O) and hydromagnesite, essentially sequestering the CO₂ within the hardened matrix. In a well-optimized system, this process can offset nearly all of the emissions from calcination, effectively closing the carbon loop.
Unlike OPC, which slowly carbonates over decades and only partially reabsorbs the CO₂ released during production, magnesium systems can achieve rapid and near-complete carbonation if exposed to CO₂ under controlled conditions. This makes magnesium cements especially attractive for prefabricated components cured in CO₂ rich chambers.
Table 2. CO₂ Emissions by Binder Type
Figure 1. Carbon Footprint Comparison of Cementitious Binders
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies underscore these environmental advantages. One LCA comparing a magnesium phosphate cement made with waste-derived MgO (from tundish deskulling waste) against conventional OPC concrete revealed that the MPC had up to 42% lower CO₂ equivalent emissions. This reduction was largely attributed to the use of industrial waste as a feedstock, thereby avoiding emissions associated with raw material extraction, and to the ambienttemperature curing of MPC, which bypasses the high energy and emissions associated with OPC clinker production.
Another key advantage lies in the flexibility of feedstocks. MgO can be obtained from non-carbonate sources such as seawater brine, serpentine minerals, or brucite (Mg(OH)2), which offer production routes with even lower or zero CO₂ emissions. In some cases, these processes even incorporate CO₂ during MgO production, resulting in net carbon-negative outcomes. For instance, Partanna’s binder derived from brine and reactive mineral additives cures at ambient temperatures while actively absorbing CO₂ from the air. According to company data, a 1,250 square foot house built with Partanna concrete can reportedly sequester approximately 182 tons of CO₂ over its lifecycle, in stark contrast to the 70 tons of CO₂ emitted from an equivalent OPC-based structure.
Beyond CO₂ metrics, magnesium-based binders contribute to sustainability through their compatibility with industrial byproducts. Several formulations incorporate steel slag, fly ash, paper mill residues, or desalination brines, reducing landfill waste and conserving natural resources. Some emerging MgO cements are even produced at ambient pressure and require no kilns at all—further reducing their energy demands and associated emissions.
It is important to note, however, that not all magnesium binders are inherently sustainable. If high-purity magnesite is calcined in traditional fossil-fueled kilns without CO₂ capture, the resulting MgO production can be nearly as carbon intensive as OPC. The key to achieving low-carbon outcomes lies in sourcing MgO from alternative materials, minimizing process energy inputs, and employing carbonation curing wherever feasible.
From a broader environmental perspective, magnesiumbased cements offer additional benefits. Their lower alkalinity (pH ~9–10) compared to OPC (pH >12) reduces the risk of alkali-silica reaction and makes them safer to handle. Most formulations are also free from volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and require fewer petrochemical-based admixtures, contributing to healthier indoor environments and more sustainable construction practices.
Curing behavior is one of the most fundamental differences between magnesium-based cements and OPC. Portland cement requires water to hydrate its clinker minerals, forming calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) over a period of days to weeks. It benefits from moist curing, which helps strength development and prevents drying shrinkage.
Magnesium phosphate cement cures via a rapid acid–base reaction that begins immediately upon mixing. It typically sets within 10–30 minutes and gains significant strength within a few hours, without the need for water curing. In fact, postcuring moisture can be detrimental by leaching unreacted salts, so MPC is usually kept dry and insulated to retain its exothermic reaction heat.
Magnesium oxychloride and oxysulfate cements also set rapidly, usually within 30–60 minutes, through crystallization of hydroxysalt phases. These are air-setting binders and should not be water-cured; excess moisture can lead to breakdown of their crystalline structure. Controlled humidity and ambient temperatures are optimal for strength development, which often reaches its peak within a day.
In contrast, carbonation-cured MgO binders require exposure to concentrated CO₂ environments. Pure MgO mixed with water forms brucite, which has minimal strength on its own. However, in the presence of CO₂, brucite transforms into solid carbonates that bond the matrix. CO₂ curing chambers (e.g., using flue gas or compressed CO₂) can significantly accelerate this reaction, allowing strength development within 24 hours. Ambient curing under atmospheric CO₂ (0.04%) is much slower and typically impractical for structural use unless thin sections or long durations are acceptable.
Some MgO-based systems are also pozzolanic. When mixed with reactive silica (e.g., silica fume), the resulting magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H) gel provides binding strength. This reaction is slower than carbonation and requires damp curing over several days somewhat analogous to OPC’s hydration, though involving different chemistry.
Because of these divergent mechanisms, field application protocols must be tailored to the specific magnesium binder. MPC repairs, for example, are insulated but not wet-cured; MOC coatings are sealed against moisture after setting; and carbonation-cured blocks are typically prefabricated under controlled CO2 conditions. In contrast, OPC systems remain more forgiving hydration is triggered simply by water, with standard curing practices applicable across most environments.
Applicability of Magnesium Based Binders
Magnesium-based binders are transitioning from laboratory development to widespread practical use, thanks to their distinctive material characteristics namely rapid setting, fire resistance, sulfate resistance, and low density. These attributes have positioned them as versatile alternatives to traditional Portland cement (OPC), particularly in applications where speed, durability, or sustainability is a priority.
One of the most prominent uses of magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) has emerged in infrastructure repair. Due to its exceptionally fast setting and ability to develop high early strength often within 1–2 hours at ambient conditions MPC is widely used for urgent maintenance of roads, bridges, and runways. Unlike OPC, which can require days to become traffic-ready, MPC enables rapid reopening of transport routes, minimizing downtime and economic disruption.
In fire-resistant construction, magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC) is the foundation for the increasingly common magnesium oxide (MgO) boards. These non-combustible, thermally insulating panels are now widely used for internal partitions and protective cladding, often replacing gypsum boards in high-rise buildings, particularly in China. Additionally, MOC-based coatings are applied directly to steel and concrete substrates for passive fire protection, demonstrating strong adhesion and heat resistance.
Magnesium binders have also made significant strides in precast and sustainable building materials. Companies like Partanna have developed carbon-negative blocks and panels using MgO sourced from desalination brine and blended with industrial waste. These products meet ASTM performance standards and are already in use in building projects. Their perfordual benefits meeting structural needs while capturing CO₂ represent a model for climate-conscious construction.
Magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) binders have been effectively applied in manufacturing lightweight, fiber-reinforced panels for non-load-bearing structures. These panels offer significant reductions in density about one-third less than traditional concrete while delivering adequate mechanical strength for interior walls and façade cladding.
In aggressive environments like sulfate-rich soils or marine settings, magnesium-based systems outperform OPC due to their intrinsic chemical resistance. Unlike OPC, which forms expansive ettringite in the presence of sulfates, magnesium binders do not include calcium aluminates, eliminating this failure mechanism. Field tests of magnesium-silicate seawall units have shown excellent resistance to marine degradation, unlike OPC counterparts that often experience surface deterioration. Furthermore, the lower alkalinity and chloride-free nature of certain magnesium formulations (e.g., MPC, MOS) extend the life of non-metallic reinforcement in corrosive environments.
Magnesium binders are also being used to produce ultra light weight and insulating materials. By incorporating foaming agents or lightweight fillers, MPC has been transformed into thermal insulating concretes with significantly reduced weight.
Other innovations include blocks made with wood ash and lime, some of which use up to 95% biomass ash content. These eco-friendly products, achieving compressive strengths of 2–5 MPa, are suitable for insulation and infill wall applications while valorizing agricultural and industrial waste. Beyond structural and insulation uses, magnesium based binders are gaining popularity in decorative and specialty flooring. MOC can be combined with pigments, fine aggregates, or marble chips to create terrazzo like floors. These finishes cure quickly and can be polished within days, offering a durable, VOC free alternative to resin-based flooring systems for commercial and residential spaces.
Conclusion
Magnesium-based binders are gaining increasing attention as sustainable alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) due to their ability to significantly reduce carbon emissions, improve construction efficiency, and enable circular economy practices. Their environmental benefits stem primarily from the use of reactive MgO, which can be produced at lower calcination temperatures (600–1000 °C) than OPC and can reabsorb CO₂ during curing via carbonation, enabling carbon-neutral or even carbon-negative cement systems. Commercial and experimental systems, such as MPC made from waste-derived MgO and carbonated MgOnesequehonite composites, demonstrate emission reductions of 40% or more compared to OPC.
In terms of performance, magnesium phosphate (MPC), oxychloride (MOC), and oxysulfate (MOS) binders offer rapid strength development often reaching structural strength within hours which is ideal for time-sensitive construction such as emergency repairs and precast manufacturing. These binders also outperform OPC in fire resistance and dimensional stability, with applications including fireproof or boards, cladding, and repair mortars. Furthermore, their chemical durability particularly resistance to sulfate attack and acid environments makes them suitable for chemically aggressive settings. Many formulations exhibit low shrinkage, and their moderate alkalinity allows for safe incorporation of glass, polymer, and natural fibers as reinforcements.
Magnesium binders also excel in resource efficiency. They are compatible with numerous industrial by-products fly ash, steel slag, red mud, and wood ash, among others allowing for binder compositions with over 80% recycled content. Their compatibility with alternative reinforcements and reduced reliance on petrochemical admixtures further enhances their environmental profile and applicability across a wide range of use cases.
However, several challenges limit their broader adoption. MOC and MOS remain sensitive to moisture, especially under prolonged exposure, which can lead to strength loss unless modified with pozzolans or stabilized via carbonation. Additionally, the high cost and limited availability of raw materials such as high-purity MgO and phosphate salts restrict scalability, particularly in regions without access to magnesite deposits or seawater-derived sources. The fast setting behavior of MPC also requires strict quality control, making it less forgiving than OPC in field applications. Conventional admixtures used in OPC systems may be incompatible with Mg-based chemistries, requiring custom formulations.
Another major obstacle is the lack of standardized codes and widespread regulatory acceptance. Although performance based standards and isolated national guidelines (e.g., for MgO boards in China) are emerging, magnesium-based binders still lack the global acceptance that OPC enjoys, thus slowing down their commercial deployment. Additionally, long-term performance data under real-world conditions such as freeze-thaw cycles, load-bearing behavior, and carbonation aging remains limited, which contributes to conservative risk assessments by structural engineers and regulatory bodies.
Recent research and technological developments aim to overcome these limitations. Reinforcement strategies include the use of natural and synthetic fibers (e.g., wool, polypropylene, basalt, biochar), which enhance crack resistance, reduce permeability, and improve thermal and mechanical properties. Biochar, in particular, is showing promise as a sustainable additive due to its carbon-negative potential and ability to retain internal moisture. Admixture optimization such as using citric or boric acid to control MPC’s rapid setting has expanded workability windows, making magnesium binders more manageable on-site or during 3D printing.
Curing methods are also evolving. Elevated-temperature curing (40–60 °C) accelerates hydration reactions, enhancing early strength and promoting the formation of crystalline phases. Mechano chemical activation through fine grinding of reactive MgO and other ingredients has enabled the development of pre-reacted, fast-setting formulations suitable for specialty and digital manufacturing applications. Carbonation curing in CO₂-rich environments further boosts performance and sustainability, with reactive MgO mineralizing CO₂ into nesquehonite and hydromagnesite. Alternative raw materials like serpentine and olivine are also under exploration for low-carbon binder synthesis without traditional calcination.
On the application front, pilot projects and commercial case studies provide real-world validation. Examples include the use of MPC for rapid airstrip and roadway repairs under cold conditions, and MOC boards used in buildings in Europe and Australia though early trials underscored the importance of moisture-proofing and chloride control. In additive manufacturing, researchers have successfully 3D printed magnesium binder-based components using tailored MPC formulations, demonstrating their potential in prefabricated, modular, and emergency construction, as well as biomedical fields.
In conclusion, magnesium-based binders offer a robust pathway toward low-carbon, high-performance construction. Their favorable environmental profile, rapid curing, fire resistance, and compatibility with alternative reinforcements make them especially relevant in a carbon-constrained future. However, challenges related to moisture sensitivity, raw material supply chains, standards development, and long-term durability must be addressed. Ongoing innovations in reinforcement technologies, admixture design, carbonation curing, and digital fabrication are expanding the performance envelope of these binders. As research advances and market confidence grows through successful pilot implementations, magnesium-based cements are poised to become a vital component in the transition toward sustainable and resilient infrastructure.
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